Increasing Lysine Content
Perhaps the first successful research directed at improving protein quality in
cereals was that of increasing the lysine content in maize (Glover and Mertz,
1987; Mertz
et al., 1964). The discovery that the
opaque2 (
o2) mutation increased the lysine content of maize endosperm by decreasing the synthesis of prolamin
(zein) proteins and increasing the level of other types of endosperm proteins
prompted a search for similar mutants in other cereal species (Munck, 1992).
Unfortunately, the low seed density and soft texture of this type of mutant were
associated with a number of inferior agronomic properties, including brittleness
and insect susceptibility. With only a few exceptions (Habben and Larkins, 1995),
these mutants were not commercially developed. However, the subsequent identification
of genetic modifiers (suppressors) that create a normal kernel phenotype
while maintaining the higher lysine content caused by the
o2 mutation in maize
permitted the development of a new type of
o2 mutant known as quality protein
maize (QPM) (Prasanna
et al., 2001). QPM is currently being grown in several
developing countries, where it is helping to alleviate protein deficiencies.
Other approaches to increase the lysine content of maize seed include
site-directed mutagenesis of genes encoding the major prolamin proteins, α- and
γ-zeins. As previously described, zeins are asymmetrically organized in ERlocalized
PBs, such that the most hydrophobic proteins, α-zeins, are found in the
center and the more hydrophilic γ-zeins are at the periphery (Lending and
Larkins, 1989). As zeins are essentially devoid of lysine (Woo
et al., 2001), the
question arises as to whether the addition of such charged amino acids will
disrupt the way in which zeins form accretions within the ER. Wallace
et al. (1988) demonstrated the consequence of inserting lysine residues into different
regions of a 19-kDa α-zein protein. When the modified proteins were synthesized
in
Xenopus oocytes, they formed accretions similar to the native proteins, suggesting
that the presence of lysine was not detrimental to their aggregation and
deposition. It was shown that green fluorescent protein insertions into a 22-kDa
a-zein protein did not disrupt PB formation in yeast cells (Kim
et al., 2002). This
observation suggests that α-zeins can be subjected to substantial structural
modification and still aggregate into insoluble accretions.
A similar approach was taken with the sulfur-rich 27-kDa γ-zein. It was first demonstrated that 27-kDa γ-zein accumulates in ER-derived PBs in
Xenopus oocytes and Arabidopsis (Geli
et al., 1994; Torrent
et al., 1994). When various
modified versions of the protein were expressed in Arabidopsis, it was found
that the N-terminal domain is necessary for ER retention and the C-terminal
domain is necessary for PB formation. However, the central domain could be
replaced with lysine-rich polypeptides without affecting protein stability and
targeting (Geli
et al., 1994). These lysine-rich γ-zeins were also shown to accumulate
to high levels in association with endogenous α- and γ-zeins in transiently
transformed maize endosperm cells (Torrent
et al., 1997). Thus, the addition of
lysine and other charged amino acids to α- and γ-zein proteins does not appear
to alter their structural properties sufficiently to inhibit assembly into PBs. However,
the consequences of these changes when the genes are expressed in stably
transformed corn plants remain to be described. Another important question
is whether sufficient levels of these proteins can be accumulated to make a
significant increase in endosperm lysine content.
Rice contains very little prolamin; its major storage protein, a so-called glutelin,
is a highly insoluble 11S globulin (Table 5.1). This protein is lysine deficient,
whereas 11S globulins in legumes are deficient in sulfur-containing amino
acids. Consuming both rice and legumes can provide an adequate balance of
these essential amino acids, and this is especially important in vegetarian or
low meat diets. Consequently, the expression of legume globulins in rice is one
strategy for improving its amino acid balance. The gene encoding proglycinin, the
precursor of soybean 11S globulin, was modified by replacing a variable region of
amino acid sequence with a peptide encoding four contiguous methionine residues
(Kim
et al., 1990). The genetically engineered protein was found to be stably
accumulated in Escherichia coli cells (Kim
et al., 1990).
In plant tissues, the modified
glycinin accumulated to a similar degree as the mature protein and in the correct
conformation (Utsumi
et al., 1993, 1994). For example, using the class 1 patatin
promoter, tuber-specific expression of the modified glycinin, amounting to
0.2–1% of total protein, was achieved in transgenic potato (Utsumi
et al., 1994).
The methionine-enriched and unmodified glycinins were transformed into rice
under control of the promoter of the glutelin,
GluB-1, which is one of the most
highly expressed genes in rice endosperm (Katsube
et al., 1999). In transgenic rice,
assembly of proglycinin into 7–8S trimeric structures, cleavage into acidic and
basic subunits, and assembly into 11–12S hexameric structures in storage vacuoles
all occurred in a manner similar to that in soybean. The endogenous glutelins
formed 11S complexes with glycinins, indicating the transgenic protein did not
adversely affect the assembly or accumulation of native storage proteins (Katsube
et al., 1999). Soybean glycinins have the property of lowering human serum
cholesterol levels, and this fact offers an advantage for expression in rice, in
addition to it being able to increase the lysine and, potentially, methionine contents
(Kito
et al., 1993). Pea legumin, which is higher in lysine than rice glutelin,
has also been expressed in rice endosperm in an effort to improve its amino acid
composition (Sindhu
et al., 1997).