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Genetics
- Genetics : An Overview
- Genetics : A study of heredity and variation
- Sexuality : A source of hereditary variation
- Ideas on heredity : A brief history
- Ideas of Hippocrates and Aristotle
- Preformation and epigenesist
- Pangenes and acquired characters
- Germplasm theory
- Phenocopies
- Scope and significance of genetics
- Transmission genetics or classical genetics
- Behavioural genetics
- Developmental genetics
- Forward genetics vs. reverse genetics
- Mendel's Laws of Inheritance
- Gregor Mendel's life
- Pre-Mendelian experiments
- Mendel's experiments
- Symbols and terminology
- Principle of segregation (law of purity of gametes)
- Principle of independent assortment
- Mendel's results, chromosome theory and linkage (present status)
- Molecular basis of Mendel's wrinkled seed character
- The rules of probability (product rule and sum rule)
- Mendelian genetics in humans
- Deviations from Mendel's finding
- Lethality and Interaction of Genes
- Lethality
- Interaction of genes
- Abbreviated genotypic ratio
- Two gene pairs affecting same character
- Epistasis
- Complementary genes
- Duplicate genes
- Additional interactions involving two gene pairs
- Interactions between more than two gene pairs
- Modifiers, suppressors and pleiotropic genes
- Meiotic drive, segregation distortion and selfish genes
- Penetrance and expressivity
- Physical Basis of Heredity 1. The Nucleus and the Chromosome
- The Nucleus
- Significance of nucleus : Hammerling's experiment
- Number, shape and size of nucleus
- Nucleus in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
- Nuclear envelope
- Nuclear pore complex and nucleocytoplasmic traffic
- Nucleolus
- Chromosomes
- Number, size and shape of chromosomes
- Morphology of chromosomes
- Karyotypes
- Euchromatin and heterochromatin
- Constitutive and facultative heterochromatin
- Single-stranded and multi-stranded hypotheses for chromosomes
- Chemical composition of chromosomes
- Infrastructure of chromosomes
- Function of chromosomes
- Special types of chromosomes
- Lampbrush chromosomes
- Salivary gland chromosomes
- B-Chromosomes
- Prokaryotic Nucleoids
- Physical Basis of Heredity 3. Genetics, Biochemistry and Dynamics of Cell Division
- Genetics of cell division cycle
- Biochemistry of cell division
- Biochemistry of mitosis
- Biochemistry of meiosis
- Dynamics of chromosome movements during cell division
- Events involving chromosome movement
- Kinetochore and spindle in chromosome movement
- Basic questions about kinetochore function
- Linkage and Crossing Over in Diploid Organisms (Higher Eukaryotes)
- Coupling and repulsion hypothesis
- A testcross in maize
- Crossing over and meiosis
- Crossing over and chiasma formation
- Mechanism of genetic recombination
- Crossing over and linkage maps
- Recombination frequencies from a test-cross
- Recombination frequencies from F2 data
- Interference and coincidence
- Linkage maps
- Mapping function and poisson distribution
- Linkage groups
- Chi-square test
- Cytological basis of crossing over
- Creighton and McClintock's experiment in corn
- Meselson and Weigle's experiment using lambda (λ) phage
- Crossing over at four strand stage
- Sexuality and Recombination in Bacteria and Viruses
- Three Methods for Transfer of Genetic Material
- Sexual conjugation in bacteria
- Culture media and mutant strains
- Discovery of gene transfer
- Discovery of linkage in bacteria
- Donor and recipient strains
- Mechanism of chromosome transfer
- Physical structures involved in chromosome transfer
- Linkage maps in bacteria
- Conjugation mapping through interrupted mapping
- Circular linkage map
- Linkage information from transformation
- Recombination after gene transfer
- High resolution mapping
- Linear order of genes
- Replication and recombination in viruses
- Replication of bacteriophages
- Lysogenic bacteria
- Transduction
- Recombination in viruses
- Circular genetic maps in viruses
- Plasmids, IS Elements, Transposons and Retroelements
- Plasmids
- Classification of plasmids
- Replication, transfer and recombination in plasmids
- Insertion sequences or IS elements
- Transposons and controlling elements
- Transposons in prokaryotes
- Transposons in eukaryotes
- Retroelements (viral and non-viral)
- Mechanism of Transposition
- Uses of Transposons
- Sex Linked, Sex Influenced and Sex Limited Traits
- Sex linked traits
- Sex linkage in Drosophila
- Sex linked lethals in Drosophila
- Sex linkage in human beings
- Sex linkage in poultry
- Non-disjunction of sex chromosomes in Drosophila
- Sex Influenced Traits (horned character in sheep)
- Sex Limited Traits (cock feathering in poultry and baldness in man).
- Sex Determination, Sex Differentiation, Dosage Compensation and Genetic Imprinting
- Chromosome Theory of Sex Determination
- Balance Theory of Sex Determination X/A ratio in Drosophila
- Triploid intersexes in Drosophila and genie balance theory
- X/A ratio and gynandromorphs in Drosophila
- X/A ratio in Coenorhabditis elegans (a free living nematode)
- Balance Between Male and Female Factors
- Diploid intersexes in gypsy moth (Lymantria)
- X/A ratio and multiple numerator elements (Drosophila and Coenorhabditis)
- Sex Determination in Plants
- Methods for determining heterogametic sex in plants
- Sex determination in Coccinia and Melandrium
- Sex determination in other dioecious plants
- Sex Chromosomes in Mammals Including Humans (Homo sapiens)
- TDF, ZFY and SRY genes in humans
- H-Y antigen and male development in mammals
- Single gene control of sex
- Sex determination in Asparagus
- Tassel seed (ts) and silkless (sk) genes in maize
- Transformer gene (tra)in Drosophila
- Haploid males in Hymenoptera
- Hormonal control of sex
- Environmental Sex Determination in Reptiles
- Dosage Compensation in Organisms with Heterogametic Males
- X-chromosome inactivation in mammals
- Position effect variegation
- Hyperactivity of X-chromosome in male Drosophila
- Lack of Dosage Compensation in Organisms with Heterogametic Females
- Genetic imprinting
- Maternal Effects and Cytoplasmic Inheritance
- Maternal effects
- Cytoplasmic Inheritance Involving Dispensable Hereditary Units
- Kappa particles in Paramecium
- CO2 Sensitivity in Drosophila (sigma factor)
- Organellar genetics
- Plastid inheritance : variegation in plants
- Male sterility in plants
- Chloroplast genetics Non-chromosomal genes in Chlamydomonas
- Mitochondrial genetics
- Paternal inheritance of cpDNA and mtDNA
- Mutations : 1. Morphological Level (Including Lethal Mutations)
- Brief History
- Range of Mutations
- Stages of Which Mutations Occur
- Types of Mutations
- Spontaneous Vs Induced Mutations
- Mutation Rates and Frequencies
- Induced Mutations
- Detection of Mutations in Drosophila
- Detection of Mutations in Plants
- Use of Microbial Systems to Assess Potency of Mutagens
- Practical Applications of Mutations
- Effect of Genotypes on Induction of Mutations (Mutator Gene and Paramutations)
- Adaptive Mutations and Genotrophs
- Mutations : 2. Biochemical Level (Biochemical and Microbial Genetics)
- Inborn errors of metabolism in man
- Eye transplantation in Drosophila
- Biochemical mutations in Neurospora
- Mutations in E. coli for resistance against phages or antibiotics
- Cell counting in suspension
- Calculation of mutation rates and frequencies
- Biochemical mutations and biosynthetic pathways
- Gene sequences and enzyme sequences in biosynthetic pathways
- Mutations: 3. Molecular Level (Mechanism)
- Mutations and nucleotide sequences in nucleic acid
- Effect of chemical mutagens on nucleotide sequence
- Effect of dyes on nucleotide sequence
- Effect of physical conditions on nucleotide sequence
- Effect of radiations on nucleotide sequence
- Spontaneous mutations and nucleotide sequence
- Mutation and amino acid sequences in proteins (including colinearity hypothesis)
- Suppressor mutations, tRNAs and ribosomes
- Human Genetics
- Human chromosomes
- Determination of sex
- Sex linked inheritance
- Chromosomal aberrations
- Dizygotic and monozygotic twins
- Inborn errors in metabolism
- Sickle-cell anaemia
- Genetic analysis through pedigree charts
- Chromosome mapping in humans (including RFLPs, etc.)
- Gene transfer in mammalian cells
- Chromosome mediated gene transfer
- Transformation of cells with free DNA
- Use of human genetics in medical science
- Genetic counselling
- Amniocentesis and antenatal diagnosis
- Gene therapy
- Making a choice of baby's sex
- DNA fingerprinting in forensic science
- Chemistry of the Gene: Nucleic Acids and Their Structure
- Nucleic acids as genetic material
- Transformation experiments
- Experiments with bacteriophage (T2) infection
- Experiments with tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
- Structure of nucleic acids
- Bases
- Nucleosides
- Nucleotides
- Polynucleotide
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- Alternative forms of DNA double helices
- Z-DNA, a left handed DNA form
- RL model
- Supercoils in closed DNA
- Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
- Chemistry of the Gene 2. Synthesis, Modification and Repair of DNA
- DNA replication: general features
- Semi-conservative DNA replication in E. coli
- Semi-conservative replication of chromosomes in eukaryotes
- Semi-discontinuous DNA replication
- Unidirectional and bidirectional DNA replication
- RNA primers in DNA replication
- Regulation of DNA replication by anti-sense RNA primer
- Prokaryotic DNA polymerases
- Eukaryotic DNA polymerases
- Replicons for DNA replication
- DNA replication in prokaryotes
- Experimental approaches for the study of DNA replication
- Initiation of DNA replication
- Elongation of DNA chain
- Replication fork movement
- Termination of DNA replication
- DNA replication in eukaryotes
- DNA replication and cell cycle
- Replication origins and initiation of DNA replication (cis and trans-acting elements)
- Comparison of initiation of DNA replication with transcription initiation
- Different steps involved in eukaryotic DNA replication
- Synthesis of telomeric DNA by telomerase
- Models of DNA replication
- Replication fork model
- Rolling circle model of DNA replication
- Mitochondrial DNA replication and D-loops
- RNA directed DNA synthesis (reverse transcription)
- DNA modification and DNA restriction
- DNA repair
- Excision repair systems in E. coli
- An SOS repair system in E. coli
- DNA repair and genetic diseases in humans
- Organization of Genetic Material 1. Packaging of DNA as Nucleosomes in Eukaryotes
- Techniques leading to nucleosome discovery
- Subunit of chromatin - the nucleosome
- Spatial arrangement of histones
- Relation between different nucleosomes
- Solenoid model
- Loops, domains and scaffolds in chromatin
- Chromatin replication and nucleosome assembly
- Phasing and modification of nucleosomes in active genes
- Organization of Genetic Material 2. Repetitive and Unique DNA Sequences
- Chromosomal DNA content and C-value paradox
- Repetitive DNA
- Technique for detecting repetitive DNA
- Chemical complexity vs sequence (kinetic) complexity
- Repetitive DNA in the form of satellite DNA
- Squash dot hybridization
- Selfish DNA
- Organization of Genetic Material 3. Split Genes, Overlapping Genes and Pseudogenes
- Split genes or interrupted genes
- Discovery and nature of split genes
- R-loop mapping and restriction mapping of interrupted genes
- Structure of chicken ovalbumin split gene
- Split genes in fungal mitochondria
- Split genes in chloroplasts
- Intron of one gene may contain exon of another gene
- Exon sequences are conserved, but intron sequences vary
- Introns with coding sequences
- Overlapping genes
- Pseudogenes
- Promiscuous DNA
- The Genetic Code
- Properties of genetic code
- Chain initiation and chain termination codons
- Synonym codons and degeneracy
- Mutations and the genetic code
- Wobble hypothesis
- New genetic codes in mitochondria and ciliate protozoa
- Suppressor mutations, base substitutions and suppressor tRNAs
- Second genetic code, and second half of the genetic code
- Recoding of the genetic code
- Expression of Gene : Protein Synthesis 1. Proteins and Protein Synthesis Apparatus (tRNA and Ribosomes)
- Protein structure
- Primary structure of proteins
- Secondary structure of proteins
- Tertiary structure of proteins and 'second half of the genetic code'
- Quaternary structure of proteins
- Protein synthesis apparatus
- Structure of tRNAs
- Structure of ribosomes
- Expression of Gene : Protein Synthesis 2. Transcription in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
- Transcription in prokaryotes
- Single RNA polymerase in E. coli
- Promoter sites for initiation of transcription in prokaryotes
- Initiation and elongation of RNA synthesis in prokaryotes
- 'Inchworm model' for elongation of transcript
- Elongation arrest vs termination of transcription
- Termination and antitermination of mRNA synthesis in prokaryotes
- Transcription in eukaryotes
- Multiple RNA polymerases in eukaryotes
- Promoter, enhancer and silencer sites for initiation of transcription in eukaryotes
- Transcription factors and initiation of RNA synthesis in eukaryotes
- Formation of preinitiation (transcription) complex with RNA polymerase II (Pol II)
- Structure and role of TFIID and other transcription factors (TBP, TAFs)
- TFIIB domains for interaction with TFIID/TATA complex
- Phosphorylation of CTD of a subunit of Pol II
- Formation of pre-initiation complex with Pol I and Pol III
- Separate DNA binding and transcription activation domains
- Transcription factors and elongation of RNA chains in eukaryotes
- Chromatin structure and transcription
- Transcription in mitochondria
- Transcription of vertebrate mtDNA
- Transcription of yeast and plant mtDNA
- Transcription in chloroplasts
- Expression of Gene : Protein Synthesis 3. RNA Processing (RNA Splicing, RNA Editing and Ribozymes)
- Addition of caps (m7G) and tails (polyA) for mRNA
- Addition of methylated cap at the 5' end
- Polyadenylation and the generation of 3' end
- RNA splicing
- Self-splicing of group I introns
- Splicing of group II introns
- Splicing of eukaryotic hnRNA through spliceosomes/snurposomes
- Splicing of introns using RNA maturases or endonucleases
- Yeast tRNA splicing by cutting and rejoining
- Trans-splicing of transcripts in chloroplasts and mitochondria
- Constitutive vs. alternative Splicing
- RNA Editing and Guide RNA
- Ribozymes
- Expression of Gene : Protein Synthesis 4. Translation in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
- Formation of amino-acyl tRNA
- Initiation of polypeptide
- Initiation in prokaryotes
- Initiation in eukaryotes
- Kozak's scanning hypothesis
- Elongation of polypeptide
- Binding of AA-tRNA at site 'A' of ribosome
- Formation of peptide bond
- Translocation of peptidyl tRNA from 'A' to 'P' site
- Termination of polypeptide
- Modification, folding and transport of released polypeptide
- Translation in chloroplasts and mitochondria
- Regulation of Gene Expression 1. Operon Circuits in Bacteria and other Prokaryotes
- Induction and repression
- Inducer and co-repressor
- The operon model for transcriptional regulation
- The tryptophan operon in bacteria (E. coli and Salmonella)
- Tryptophan (trp) repressor controls three sets of genes
- Negative and Positive Controls of Transcription
- Substitution of Sigma Factor and Control of Transcription
- Multiple sigma factors in E. coli
- Sporulation in bacteria
- DNA sequences controlling transcription
- DNA sequences for CAP, RNA polymerase and lac-repressor
- Identification of starting point
- Pribnow box and other sequences common to DNA regions upstream to several operons
- Regulation by DNA rearrangements
- Post-transcriptional regulation
- Leader sequences and attenuators
- Autogenous regulation of translation
- Regulation by alternative splicing
- Regulation by-anti-sense RNA
- Repression and activation of translation
- Feedback inhibition
- Signal transduction and ‘two component regulatory system’
- Regulation of Gene Expression 3. A Variety of Mechanisms in Eukaryotes
- Regulation at Transcription Level
- Activation of transcription
- Britten-Davidson model for unit of transcription
- Gene battery
- Chromosomal proteins and gene expression
- Repression of transcription
- Specific DNA sequences controlling transcription
- Transgenic plants to study regulatory sequences
- Modification of DNA sequences and their transcripts in gene expression
- Alternative splicing of transcripts
- Regulation at translation level
- Activation and repression of translation
- Masked mRNA in eggs of sea urchin and Xenopus
- Regulation by gene re-arrangement
- Expression of immunoglobulin genes
- Yeast mating type switching
- Trypanosome surface antigen (VSG) switching
- Synthesis of mRNA in pieces in VSG genes in trypanosome
- Regulation by reversible phosphorylation
- Signal transduction and second messengers
- Proteins and peptide hormonesand gene expression
- Steroid hormones and gene expression
- Interferon stimulated gene expression (without a second messenger)
- Cell surface receptors in cholesterol metabolism and drug production
- Ubiquitin protein and regulation of heat shock genes
- Developmental Genetics
- Factors controlling development
- Changes in the Nucleus During Development (Nuclear Transplantation)
- Turning genes on and off during development
- Gene regulation during early embryonic development
- The Genetics of Development
- Developmental mutants in Drosophila
- Developmental mutants in higher plants
- Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology 1. Recombinant DNA and PCR (Cloning and Amplification of DNA)
- Restriction enzymes in cloning
- Techniques used in recombinant DNA
- Cloning vectors for recombinant DNA
- Plasmids as vectors
- Bacteriophages as vectors
- Plant and animal viruses as vectors
- Transposons as vectors
- Artificial chromosome vectors for cloning large DNA segments
- Construction of chimeric DNA
- Palindromes and staggered cleavage
- Adding poly dA at the 3' ends of the vector and poly dT at the 3' ends of DNA clone
- Blunt end ligation by T4 DNA ligase
- Cloning in bacteria and eukaryotes
- Cloning in bacteria
- Cloning in eukaryotes
- Molecular probes
- Labelling of probes
- Applications of molecular probes
- Construction and screening of genomic and cDNA libraries
- Gene amplification : PCR and its applications
- cDNA library from mRNA
- Colony (or plaque) hybridization for screening of libraries
- Gene Amplification : PCR and Its Applications
- The basic polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
- Different schemes of PCR
- Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology 2. Restriction Maps and Molecular Genetic Maps
- Restriction mapping
- Restriction cleavage and gel electrophoresis
- Construction of a restriction map
- Use of partial digests, end labeling and hybridization in restriction mapping
- Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) as markers for genetic maps
- Linkage and recombination between molecular and phenotypic markers
- Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPDs) using PCR
- Minisatellites (VNTRs) and Microsatellites (SSRs)
- Chromosome Walking and Characterization of Chromosome Segments
- Reverse Genetics and Chromosome Jumping (or Hopping) Libraries
- Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology 3. Isolation, Sequencing and Synthesis of Genes
- Isolation of genes
- Early attempts for isolation of ribosomal RNA genes in Xenopus
- Isolation of genes coding for known specific proteins
- Isolation of genes coding for an unknown product
- Sequencing of genes or a DNA segment
- Maxam and Gilbert's chemical degradation method
- Synthesis of genes
- Chemical synthesis of genes
- Synthesis of gene for yeast alanyl tRNA
- Synthesis of gene for a true precursor tRNA
- Gene synthesis machines
- Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology 5. Hybridoma and Monoclonal Antibodies
- Hybridoma and the production of monoclonal antibodies
- Improvements in hybridoma technology
- Purification of antibodies
- Antibody Engineering and Genetic Manipulations
- Alternatives to hybridoma for monoclonal antibodies
- Production of human and humanized antibodies
- Uses of monoclonal antibodies
- Monoclonal antibodies in diagnosis, screening and therapy
- Vaccine production and monoclonal antibodies
- Monoclonal antibodies as enzymes (abzymes)
- Purification and quantitation of other molecules
- Genetics of Cancer : Proto-oncogenes, Oncogenes and Tumour Suppressor Genes
- Viral oncogenes (y-onc genes)
- Isolated oncogenes for transfection assay
- Activation of proto-oncogenes by mutation
- Activation of proto-oncogenes by insertions, translocations and amplification
- Tumour suppressor genes or anti-oncogenes
- Cellular functions of oncoproteins
- Regulation of gene expression by oncoproteins
- Signal transduction by oncoproteins (G proteins)
- Population Genetics : Gene Frequencies in Populations
- Gene pool and gene frequencies
- Equilibrium of gene frequencies and Hardy-Weinberg
- Frequencies of two alleles at a single locus
- Frequencies of more than two alleles at a single locus
- Frequencies of alleles at two or more loci
- Changes in gene frequencies
- Mutations
- Selection
- Balance between mutation and selection
- Migration
- Random drift
